IN Malaysia, between the two terms, it was "integrity" that was given constant attention for the longest time. Although the term itself was seldom used in the past, the two words which convey the same meaning -- "'honesty" and "ethics" -- were repeatedly emphasised in schools and during talks on religions. In English-medium schools in particular, children were constantly reminded of the saying: "Honesty is the best policy".

Even in the University of Malaya (Singapore) where philosophy was one of the disciplines taught in the early years of its existence, logic and ethics were compulsory subjects.

In short, morality was considered one of the main principles governing human relationships. Between two people or, for that matter, two parties or more, there was need for transparent conduct to ensure harmony and enhance happiness. When friendships developed, it was expected that one should be able to trust one's friend or friends implicitly.

However, in past Asian societies, in general, between the ruling class and the subject class, the principle did not really apply for while the subject class was not allowed to tell lies, the ruling class enjoyed almost total power. It could not be penalised if it did not tell the truth because it performed the functions of "judge, jury and executioner". The move against unjust rulers and governments occurred gradually. Even in the Malay peninsula, although a ruler was assassinated in Johor as early as 1699, no move was made then to change the system of government. Absolute monarchy continued to exist.

In other words, the values governing the relationship between one individual and another or between two groups were very different in the days of the ancient regime.
The situation began to change in the peninsula only after Western systems and values were progressively introduced to the locals. The subject class was gradually, and rather indirectly, encouraged to ask questions and to speak up for themselves when councils at the local and state levels were introduced towards the latter half of the 19th century.

Some of these values were subsequently consistently disseminated in local schools after modern education had been introduced. Equally effective as agents of change was the media -- newspapers (increasingly since 1806) and cinematography (beginning from about 1930). But it was not society as a whole which benefited. The more educated did; the less educated did not always manage to grasp ideas and ideals disseminated directly or indirectly.

Still, undeniably, the coming of the West unavoidably led to more radical social change. The process took a long time; it differed greatly from one ethnic group to another. Educated leaders in India had acquired sufficient Western ideas and a legal system to challenge British colonialism by 1857. Indian political activists had appeared in this country by the time of World War 1.

Japan, too, had begun to convulse socially before the end of the 19th century. The Meiji restoration witnessed the beginnings of modernisation. When Japan defeated China in a war in the 1890s, it inspired a part of Malay society to work towards modernisation as well. But China was then still in the throes of Manchurian hegemony. But the onslaught of modern ideas eventually led to the end of monarchy and republicanism has remained to this day.

Here, change began at a faster pace on the fringes of the peninsula where the British had established the Straits Settlements in 1826. English education was introduced in the Malay states about half a century later.Also after the British had begun to interfere in the administration of the Malay kingdoms, the Straits population steadily moved into the western part of the peninsula, attracted by employment opportunities as the English language became increasingly important in all aspects of administration.

However, although English education exposed the younger generation to modern socio-political developments, Western ideas were not quickly accepted with open arms. There was always the call to preserve traditional values. Socialist and communist ideas arrived after WW1 but leftist ideas were critical of Western domination although it preached egalitarianism, which was itself a Western idea.

The result was that leftist ideas managed to penetrate, surreptitiously, even the Malay community. It gave rise to a conflict between those who steadfastly defended the status quo and those who wanted change. This was particularly evident after World War 2 when two Malay political parties, with ideologically different views, emerged -- the Malay Nationalist Party (in late 1945) and Umno (in early 1946).

Britain, meanwhile, following trends set by the United States which called for decolonisation -- by first freeing its own colony (the Philippines) in 1946 -- began to encourage the formation of nation-states among territories which it had previously colonised or extended protection to. A policy of liberalisation ensued in the then Malaya after 1945. Political parties were allowed to be formed, also trade unions. The first major constitutional change -- the introduction of the Malayan Union -- was to introduce democracy after a nation-state (Malaya) had been formed.

The process was beset with problems as the existing political structures which existed were very complex, not the least important of which was the need to merge the nine sovereign Malay kingdoms with the British Crown Colony comprising Penang and Malacca.

The idea of human rights ingrained in the concept of democracy -- "government of the people, by the people, for the people" -- was primary in the minds of the educated British subjects residing in Penang and Malacca. But Britain had also, over several decades, by treaties, undertaken to preserve the sanctity of the Malay kingdoms. Trying to find a win-win situation was more than doubly difficult. The local leaders felt that they could perhaps solve the problem progressively once Malaya had become a nation-state. But they were mistaken. The subject is debated even today.

But it has gone beyond the need to provide fairly among the citizens of the country irrespective of race, religion and creed. Since becoming a member of the United Nations after Malaya became a nation-state, Malaya (then Malaysia) has had to observe the Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted by the United Nations in 1948.

Human rights cover a broad range of subjects among the most basic of which are that human beings are born equal and they have certain god-given rights such as the right to education, basic amenities and the choice of who should be entrusted with the responsibility of running the country.

Elections, in fact, had been introduced in Malaya beginning from late 1951 -- the Penang municipal elections were held then -- and the first nation-wide elections were held in 1955. Since then Parliament, established in 1957, was suspended only once in 1969.

Like many other countries, this country has had to balance between democracy and national security. While the government has not openly dispensed with democracy, in most instances when faced with a choice between observing the principle of human rights as enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and ensuring national security, it is the latter which consistently gains priority.

But ultimately to uphold human rights, there must be integrity in the management of the country, from the upper echelon of society to the grassroots level.

Stability in a society and progress can become a reality only when each person behaves correctly rather deviously. Every action must be transparent and the old adage of "love thy neighbour as thyself" is not outdated.

Then and only then can it be expected that a nation will always give priority to the interests of the people irrespective of race, creed or religion. Few people realise that the Penang Free School was founded in 1816 with that in mind for "free" meant that the school would not be encumbered by "race, creed or religion".

Tan Sri Prof Emeritus Khoo Kay Kim is a commissioner of Human Rights Commission of Malaysia

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SUHAKAM TO HOST HUMAN RIGHTS FORUM

SUHAKAM will host the 13th Annual Meeting of the Asia Pacific Forum of National Human Rights Institutions on July 28-31 in Kuala Lumpur. The meeting will bring together APF members and other national human rights institutions, United Nations agencies, national governments, non-governmental organisations and donor groups to discuss critical human rights issues facing the region.